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sodium and potassium, negatively charged proteins or nucleic acids being carried from the cytoplasm into the extracellular matrix, and an equal number of ungated "leak" channels in the plasma membrane.
The negatively charged chloride ions experience an electrical force from the resting membrane potential. The steady-state condition would result in a chloride gradient that follows Nernst's law at the resting membrane potential and fix the chloride reversal potential at the resting membrane potential if the membrane potential were the only factor operating and provided a sufficient chloride conductance. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the equilibrium potential for chloride can differ from the resting membrane potential in both positive and negative directions. As a result, in addition to the passive equilibrium condition, active transport also influences the distribution of chloride across the cell membrane. The two most significant chloride pumps for cytoplasm neurons are two members of the cation-chloride cotransporter family (Gagnon & Delpire, 2013). One cotransporter of sodium, potassium, and chloride:
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